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Google AI: Based on J.B. Schneewind’s The Invention of Autonomy and related scholarly analyses, Francisco Suárez and Hugo Grotius both navigatedSuárez provided the groundwork for distinguishing between perfect/imperfect duties (based on internal versus external actions), which Grotius then used to build a social contract model based on rights, sociability, and legal obligation rather than Aristotelian eudaimonia.

Based on J.B. Schneewind’s 
The Invention of Autonomy and related scholarly analyses, Francisco Suárez and Hugo Grotius both navigated the transition from Aristotelian virtue ethics to modern natural law by utilizing a distinction between perfect and imperfect duties (and rights). While Suárez maintained a more traditional scholastic framework, Grotius repurposed these concepts to underpin a social contract theory centered on sociability and subjective rights. 
Suarez: Perfect/Imperfect and Moral Virtue
Suárez (1548–1617) sought a "middle way" that combined Thomistic naturalism with voluntarism, framing natural law as genuine, divine command-based law rather than just rational counsel. 
  • Perfect Virtues/Duties: These relate to strict justice and obligations that are legally actionable, often focusing on external actions.
  • Imperfect Virtues/Duties: These call for internal, virtuous motivation (like charity or benevolence) but cannot be strictly enforced or specified, allowing for discretion.
  • Virtue as Obedience: Suárez viewed virtue not as an Aristotelian search for the mean, but rather as the habit of obeying natural law, which is derived from rational human nature.
  • Social Contract Context: While Suarez discusses "virtual pacts" in the transfer of power, he is not a modern contractarian; he grounds authority in God, not just individual consent. 
Grotius: Social Contract and Rights
Grotius (1583–1645) shifted Suárez's framework toward a more secularized "modern" view, focusing on "subjective rights" (moral powers) rather than just duties. 
  • The Social Contract: Grotius placed the social contract at the center of his political theory, viewing the state as a necessary construct to protect property and ensure peace, stemming from human sociability.
  • Redefining Duty: Grotius separated natural morality (what is honestum) from natural law (what is obligatory). He defined perfect rights as those allowing the use of force (property, contract) and imperfect rights as those relying on "the law of love" (charity/generosity), which are not strictly enforceable.
  • Social Virtues: Unlike modern minimalist interpretations, Grotius argued that natural law includes virtues like temperance and fortitude, not just expletive justice. 
Schneewind’s Perspective
Schneewind argues that modern virtue theory grew out of this reinterpretation of natural law.
  • Misfortunes of Virtue: Modern philosophers, following Grotius and Pufendorf, reinterpreted virtue as the "habit of obeying the law" rather than achieving excellence.
  • Departure from Aristotle: Grotius and his successors rejected the Aristotelian focus on the "mean" and the internal motive of the agent. Instead, they focused on "subjective rights" as the core of law.
  • Transition to Modernity: While Suárez remained "pre-modern" by combining naturalist morality with strict legal obligation, Grotius is seen as moving toward a more modern, secular, and contractual understanding of justice, notes Schneewind. 
In summary, Suárez provided the groundwork for distinguishing between perfect/imperfect duties (based on internal versus external actions), which Grotius then used to build a social contract model based on rights, sociability, and legal obligation rather than Aristotelian eudaimonia. 

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